Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words used to connect words, phrases, or clauses. There are three types of conjunctions:- Coordinating Conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions join like with like (i.e., they join a noun with another noun, an adjective with another adjective, etc.). The most common ones are and, but, and or. There are seven in total: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. (You can remember them using the mnemonic F.A.N.B.O.Y.S.)
- Subordinating Conjunctions. Subordinating conjunctions join subordinate clauses to main clauses. Common examples are although, because, if, since, unless, until, and while.
- Correlative Conjunctions. Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to join alternatives or equal elements. The most common pairs are either/or, neither/nor, and not only/but also.
![conjunctions different types](https://www.grammar-monster.com/lessons/pics/conjunctions_different_types.png)
![](https://www.grammar-monster.com/images/thumbsup.png)
at
Wrong
preposition
beliefs
Wrong
abstract noun
through
Wrong
preposition
bassoon
Wrong
concrete noun
mare
Wrong
concrete noun
sternly
Wrong
adverb
or
Correct!
coordinating conjunction
father
Wrong
concrete noun
even if
Correct!
subordinating conjunction
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Easy Examples of Conjunctions
Here are some examples of coordinating conjunctions (shaded):- The comment was blunt but effective. (The conjunction joins two adjectives.)
- Familiarity breeds contempt and children. (The conjunction joins two nouns.)
- We'll stay in the car until the hail stops.
- I'm leaving if Lee starts telling us about that bass again.
- I could neither laugh nor cry.
- She was not only smart but also beautiful.
Real-Life Examples of Coordinating Conjunctions
Here are some real-life examples of coordinating conjunctions (shaded):- If a man should challenge me to a duel, I would take him kindly and forgivingly by the hand and lead him to a quiet place to kill him. (Writer Mark Twain) (Here, the first conjunction joins two adverbs (kindly and forgivingly). The second joins two verbs (take and lead).)
- The best solutions are often simple yet unexpected. (Rock musician Julian Casablancas)
- He is richest who is content with the least, for content is the wealth of nature. (Greek philosopher Socrates)
Real-Life Examples of Subordinating Conjunctions
The role of the subordinating conjunction and subordinate clause is to establish a time, a place, a reason, a condition or a concession for the main clause. Below are some real-life examples of subordinating conjunctions. (In these examples, the subordinating conjunctions are highlighted and the subordinate clause is bolded.)- I find television very educating. Every time somebody turns on the set, I go into the other room and read a book. (Comedian Groucho Marx) (The subordinate clause establishes a time for the main clause.)
- Wherever the art of medicine is loved, there is also a love of humanity. (Greek physician Hippocrates) (The subordinate clause establishes a place for the main clause.)
- People are more violently opposed to fur than leather because it's safer to harass rich women than motorcycle gangs. (The subordinate clause establishes a reason for the main clause.)
- Man is ready to die for an idea, provided that idea is not quite clear to him. (Author Paul Eldridge) (The subordinate clause establishes a condition for the main clause.)
- I'm always ready to learn, although I do not always like being taught. (Sir Winston Churchill) (The subordinate clause establishes a concession for the main clause.)
Read more about subordinating conjunctions.
Real-Life Examples of Correlative Conjunctions
- Flowers are restful to look at. They have neither emotions nor conflicts. (Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud)
- Education is not only the filling of a pail but also the lighting of a fire. (Irish poet William Butler Yeats)
- It is not death but dying which is terrible. (Author Henry Fielding)
Why Should I Care about Coordinating Conjunctions?
There are two common questions related to coordinating conjunctions:(Question 1) Do you put a comma before and?
Mostly no but sometimes yes. Unfortunately, the answer to this question isn't short. Here's a summary of the rules:The Rule for Two Items
When and (or any coordinating conjunction) joins two items, don't use a comma.![](https://www.grammar-monster.com/images/tick.png)
- The Bakerloo line runs between Elephant and Castle, and Harrow and Wealdstone.
- I used to watch Colombo, and Cagney and Lacey.
There's a very important exception to this rule though. It's important exception because it's common.
The Exception to the Rule for Two Items
When your coordinate conjunction joins two (or more) independent clauses (i.e., ones that could stand alone as individual sentences), then use a comma.- I like sweet things, but I prefer savoury dishes.
- I like sweet things but prefer savoury dishes.
- The lion and the calf shall lie down together, but the calf won't get much sleep.
(Film director Woody Allen)
(The first coordinating conjunction (and) joins two nouns, so no comma is required. The second (but) joins two independent clauses, so a comma is required.)
- Basically, my wife was immature. I'd be at home in my bath, and she'd come in and sink my boats.
(Woody Allen)
(The first coordinating conjunction (and) joins two independent clauses, so a comma is required. The second (and) joins two verbs, so no comma is required.)
- Craig caught a bass and Lee caught a goby.
- Craig caught a bass, and Lee caught a goby.
- The man caught the boy and the girl caught the dog.
- The man caught the boy, and the girl caught the dog.
The Rule for Three or More Items
When there are three or more list items, life starts getting a little more complicated because there is no unified position on whether to use a comma with the coordinating conjunction.Some people will write this:
- Bacon, eggs, and tomatoes (The comma before the and is called an Oxford Comma. This is the convention followed by most (but not all) Americans.)
- Bacon, eggs and tomatoes (This is the convention followed by most (but not all) Brits. The most notable exception is the Oxford University Press, after which the Oxford Comma is named.)
Advocates of the Oxford Comma claim it eliminates ambiguity. They have a point. The Oxford Comma is certainly useful for showing the separations between the list items.
- £3 for a mug of tea, bacon and eggs and toast (Without an Oxford Comma, this could mean (1) a mug of tea, (2) bacon, and (3) eggs and toast.)
- £3 for a mug of tea, bacon and eggs, and toast (With an Oxford Comma, the list items are clear.)
- Jack left the pub with John (a policeman) and Simon.
- Jack left the pub with John, a policeman, and Simon. (With an Oxford Comma, this could feasibly refer to two people (like in the top example) or three people.)
- This book is dedicated to my parents, Ayn Rand and God. (This could feasibly be read as "…my parents (Ayn Rand and God)". The same "ambiguity" wouldn't exist with an Oxford Comma before and.)
Well, actually, be flexibly consistent. If your chosen convention creates ambiguity, break the convention. There's only one 100% rule when it comes to the Oxford Comma: clarity trumps convention.
In other words, everyone (regardless of what convention they follow) should write this when they mean four people:
- I have the twins, Joe, and Callum.
(for four people)
(Question 2) Can you start a sentence with And or But?
Despite what you may have been told at school, you can start a sentence with a conjunction like And, Or and But.Bear in mind though that a conjunction at the start of a sentence looks quite striking, so don't do it too often (it gets annoying quickly). However, you should definitely keep this practice in your back pocket to create an impactful start to your sentence. Think of it like this:
And is an impactful way of saying In addition
But is an impactful way of saying However
Or is an impactful way of saying Put another way
Here are some real-life examples:
- And let every other power know that this hemisphere intends to remain the master of its own house.
(US President John F Kennedy)
- I've had a perfectly wonderful evening. But, this wasn't it.
(Comedian Groucho Marx)
So, the real question is not whether you can use a coordinate conjunction to start a sentence but whether and, but and or are conjunctive adverbs as well as coordinating conjunctions. And, it seems they are.
Therefore, should you put a comma after your conjunction like you do with a conjunctive adverb? Well, that's up to you. If you want a pause, go for it. If you don't, don’t.
- It is better to be beautiful than to be good. But, it is better to be good than to be ugly.
(Oscar Wilde)
(The comma after But provides a pause. It's not a grammar thing. It's a controlling-the-flow-of-text thing.)
- And I will always love you. (Singer Whitney Houston)
Key Points for Coordinating Conjunctions
- Don't use a comma with a coordinating conjunction that joins two items.
- Don't use a comma with a coordinating conjunction in a list of three or more items (unless you're American or studying at Oxford).
- Break both of the rules above if using or omitting a comma makes the text clearer.
- Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two independent clauses.
- You can start a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, and you can put a comma after it if you want a pause. But, don't start a sentence with a coordinating conjunction too often. It gets annoying.
Why Should I Care about Subordinating Conjunctions?
As a native English speaker, you don't need to worry about whether your subordinating conjunction is heading up a clause that establishes a time, a place, a reason, a condition or a concession. You'll do that bit naturally.The most common question related to subordinating conjunctions is whether to offset the subordinate clause with a comma or not. Here's the guidance:
When a subordinate clause starts a sentence, separate it from the main clause with a comma.
- If you shoot at mimes, should you use a silencer?
(Comedian Steven Wright)
- Now that I'm over sixty, I'm veering toward respectability.
(Actress Shelley Winters)
When a subordinate clause ends a sentence, you can drop the comma.
- Should you use a silencer if you shoot at mimes?
- I'm veering toward respectability now that I'm over sixty.
As a rule, try to resist using a comma before a subordinating conjunction. However, if you want to create a pause for effect, then a comma can be used.
- Money is better than poverty, if only for financial reasons.
(Film director Woody Allen)
- Man is ready to die for an idea, provided that idea is not quite clear to him.
Let's complicate the issue a bit. The rule that states "do not use a comma when subordinate clause follows the independent clause" is not really the rule. The real rule is "use a comma if the clause is nonessential." The problem, however, is that it's really difficult to decide whether an adverbial clause is essential or nonessential. (It is much easier with adjective clauses.) As the vast majority of adverbial clauses are essential, it's pretty safe, but not entirely safe, to declare that a post-positioned (as it's called when it's at the back) subordinate clause clause isn't preceded by a comma.
Read more about commas with subordinate (or dependent) clauses.
Key Points for Subordinating Conjunctions
- If your subordinate conjunction heads up a clause at the start of your sentence, offset the clause with a comma.
- If your subordinate conjunction heads up a clause at the back of your sentence, don't use a comma (unless you want a pause for effect).
Why Should I Care about Correlative Conjunctions?
Correlative conjunctions are useful for keeping your writing succinct. They not only provide a succinct structure to say two things but also express how those two things relate to each other.Generally, correlative conjunctions don't cause native English speakers too much grief, but there are four noteworthy issues associated with correlative conjunctions.
(Issue 1) Keep a parallel structure.
Correlative conjunctions come in pairs. You must use the same type of word after each one in the pair.- Lee not only likes pies but also cakes.
- He should either sell his watch or his car.
- Lee likes not only pies but also cakes.
- He should sell either his watch or his car.
- Lee not only likes pies but also likes cakes.
- He should either pawn his watch or sell his car.
(Issue 2) Don't use commas with correlative conjunctions. (Beware the exceptions!)
Sometimes, writers are unsure whether to use a comma with correlative conjunctions. This question arises most often with the pairing not only/but also. Here's the rule: Don't use commas with correlative conjunctions.- Lee likes not only pies, but also cakes.
- As a father has compassion on his children, so God has compassion on those who fear him.
(Bible, Psalm 103:13)
- Not only does Lee like pies, but he also likes cakes.
- Lee likes not only pies, especially cheese and onion, but also cakes.
(Issue 3) Be careful with subject-verb agreement.
When the pairing either/or or neither/nor features in the subject of a verb, the verb is singular if both elements are singular.- Neither the inspector nor the constable was available for comment.
Convention 1: The Proximity Rule. Under this convention, the element nearest the verb determines whether it's singular or plural.
- Neither the inspector nor the constables were available for comment.
- Neither the inspectors nor the constable were available for comment. (Here, the first element (inspectors) is plural, so the verb is plural. This would be wrong using The Proximity Rule.)
- Either the budgies or the cat have to go. (This is correct under the Logic Rule but wrong under the Proximity Rule.)
- Either the car or the budgies have to go.
(Issue 4) Don't forget that neither/nor plays a negative role.
Be aware that neither/nor plays a negative role in your sentence. Be careful not to use a double negative.- We did not discuss neither the flooding nor the landslide.
- We discussed neither the flooding nor the landslide.
- We did not discuss either the flooding or the landslide.
Key Points for Correlative Conjunctions
- Position your correlative conjunctions in your sentence so the same type of word follows each one. In other words, use a parallel structure.
- Don't use a comma with a correlative conjunction unless the words after it could be a standalone sentence (i.e., contain a subject and a verb and convey a complete idea).
- Treat a subject that features either/or or neither/nor as singular if the elements after the conjunctions are singular. If one is plural, put it nearest to the verb and use a plural verb.
- Don't use a negative verb with neither/nor otherwise you'll create a double negative.
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